Module 2 Prenatal Development, Labor, and Infancy

GENETICS AND DEVELOPMENT

Module 2: Part 1

Genetic Foundations of Development

• Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made up of DNA example: sex chromosomes

• Genes: units of hereditary information, segments of DNA

• DNA: Double helix molecule that contains genetic information

Genetic Foundations of Development

• Genes can collaborate with each other • Environment can influence the activity of

genes i.e. stress, temperature, radiation, toxins

• Gene Mutation: changes due to environmental cause, can results in illness or death

Genetic Foundations of Development

• Genotype: genetic heritage • Phenotype: Observable and measurable

characteristics of genotype expression i.e. hair color, eye color, height

• Dominant and recessive genes: Some genes are always dominant (expressed) if present

Chromosomal Abnormalities • Down Syndrome: extra chromosome that cases

mild to severe retardation, physical abnormalities • Fragile X Syndrome: can cause mental retardation,

learning disabilities • Klinefelter syndrome: extra X chromosome cases

physical abnormalities • Turner Syndrome: Missing X chromosome, can

cause mental retardation, sexual underdevelopment • XYY Syndrome: extra Y can cause above average

height

Inherited Disorders

• Huntington’s Disease: • Tay-Sachs Disease • Hemophilia- prevents blood-clotting • Sickle-cell anemia: Blood disorder

Behavior Genetics

• Studies the interaction of genetic and environmental factors and their role in human behaviors, traits, and development o Twin Studies are frequently used o Adoption studies – are adopted children more like

their adopted parents (nurture) or biological parents (nature)

Epigenetic view: development involves ongoing interchange between heredity and the environment

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, LABOR & DELIVERY

Module 2: Part 2

Conception

• Ovum is fertilized by a sperm cell • Receives 23 chromosomes from the sperm

and 23 from ovum

Prenatal Development • Three Stages:

o Germinal Period: first two weeks after conception • Includes creation of fertilized egg (zygote) • Cell division • Attachment of zygote to uterine wall

o Embryonic Period: occurs from two to eight weeks after conception

• Include the creation of support system for cells, organs start to develop, embyro

o Fetal Period: two months after conception to birth • Growth and development continue, fetus is typically

viable at 22 or 24 weeks (can live outside the womb)

Prenatal Testing

• Ultrasound sonography • Chorionic villus sampling • Amniocentesis • Maternal blood screening • Fetal MRI

Hazards to Prenatal Development

• Teratogens: Any agent that can cause a borth defect or alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes: o Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome o Prescription and non-prescription drugs o Radiation o Lead/Toxins in environment

Hazards to Prenatal Development

• Maternal Age • Maternal Nutrition • Maternal Weight • Maternal Diseases • Paternal factors • Emotional states and stress of mother

Hazards to Prenatal Development

• 1 in 5 pregnancies end in miscarriage • Extrauterine (Ectopic) pregnancies • Blood Mismatch

Prenatal Care

• Usually includes: o Detection of medical problems during pregnancy o Counseling & Education o Childbirthing classes o Parenting classes o An ultrasound o Detection on monitoring of baby’s heartbeat o Gender of baby o Baby’s growth

Birth Process

• Three stages: o Stage 1: The longest contraction are 15 to 20

minutes apart and can last up to a minute, cervix effaces/dilates, average length of 6 to 12 hours, ends when cervix dilates to 10 centimeters

o Stage 2: Baby’s head starts to move through the cervix and the birth canal

o Stage 3: Afterbirth: Placenta, umbilical cord and other membranes are expelled from mother’s body

Methods of Childbirth

• Natural Childbirth: no drugs are used to relieve pain or assist with the process

• Prepared Childbirth: Special breathing techniques, labor preparation

• Cesarean delivery (C-section)- baby removed from the uterus through abdominal surgery

Newborns

• Low-birth weight: less than 5 pounds at birth • Pre-term infants: born three or more weeks

prior to full-term • Anoxia: fetus or newborn receives insufficient

oxygen can cause brain damage • Low birthweight/preterm at greater risk of:

Learning disabilities, ADHD, asthma

Newborns

• Newborn hearing test • Genetic blood test • Apgar Scale: test assessing health of

newborn within 5 minutes after birth: o Heart rate o Respiratory effort o Muscle tone o Body color o reflexes

Postpartum Period

• Period after childbirth up to six weeks after childbirth

• Mother’s body adjusts or returns to a nearly pre-pregnant state

• Emotional and psychological adjustments • Period of bonding between parents and

newborn

Newborn Temperament

• Difficult – fussy babies • Slow to warm up – serious, stare at stranger

for a while • Easy- good natured, friendly • Temperament is something infants are born

with, but it can be altered by the environment (parental abuse, neglect, caregivers, instability in home or neighborhood)

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY (BIRTH TO 1 YEAR)

Module 2: Part 3

Physical Development in Infancy

• Cephalocaudal Growth Pattern: o Earlier growth starts at the top and works it way

towards the bottom • Proximodistal Growth Pattern:

o Growth starts at the center of the body moving towards extremities

Physical Development in Infancy

• Brain Development: o Newborn brain is 25% of adult weight and 75% of

adult weight by 1 year old o Synaptic connections forming o Myelination o Lateralization

• Rapid Height and Weight changes: o Double birth weigh within first 4 months o Double height by first birthday

Motor Development

• Muscle, fat and bone development occur • Combined with brain development, gross

motor skills start to develop o Lift and steady head unsupported o Lift upper body o Roll o Grasp and reach

Infant Motor Development

• Gross Motor Skills: uses large muscles – moving arms, crawling, pull up, walking, lifting head, sitting unassisted.

• Fine Motor Skills: grasping toys, using a spoon, pincer grip – picking up and eating small pieces of food

Motor Development

• Newborn Reflexes: o Rooting – turn cheek towards food source (bottle

or breast) o Sucking –suck bottle or breast o Grasping – close fist around object in palm of

hand o Moro – startle response

Major Developmental Milestones in Infancy

• Lift head and chest when laid on stomach • Sit without support • Stand with support • Crawling • Walk with Support • Walk unassisted

o Not considered delayed until after 15 months

The Infant Brain

• Deprived environments can lead to depressed brain activity

• Brain is plastic – flexible and resilient to biological and environmental influences

Infant Sleep

• Newborns sleep 16 to 17 hours a day • Almost half of their sleep occurs in REM

sleep stage. • Newborns may frequently wake in night until

day-night sleep patterns established

Risks to Infants • Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS):

Infant stops breathing without apparent cause. o Risk factors include Low birth weight, sharing

parents bed, pacifier use, room with fan • Shaken Baby Syndrome: harsh shaking of an

infant causes brain swelling, hemorrhaging and brain damage

• Neglect and deprivation: has cognitive and emotional impact on development.

Nutrition in Infancy

• Breast vs. bottle feeding o Breastfeeding better for cognitive development,

lower risk of childhood obesity, lower risk of certain chronic health conditions

o Mothers with certain infections such as HIV or TB, or on certain medications should not breastfeed

Perceptual Development in Infancy

• Visual Perception: o Visual acuity: sharpness of objects in front of an

infant increases with age o Perception of occluded (partially hidden) objects o Visual Cliff: Visual Cliff Experiment test depth

perception in infants

Sensory and Perception Development cont’d

• Hearing • Touch and Pain • Smell • Taste • Intermodal Perception: integrating information

from two or more senses • Using perception to direct movement

o Important to childproof as these skills develop

Cognitive Development

• Piaget: o Schemas: actions or mental processes that

organize information o Assimilation: using existing information to deal

with new information o Accommodation: adjusting existing schemes to fir

new information o Adaptation

Cognitive Development

• Piaget: Stage 1 – Sensorimotor stage from birth to around 2 years old

• Object Permanence: Objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from the infant’s view, or cannot be heard or touched

Cognitive Development • Attention • Memory- Recognition, recall • Habituation and Dishabituation – response to

familiar and unfamiliar stimuli • Imitation • Language Development :Cooing and Babbling,

gestures, crying o Child Directed Speech (Parentese): speaking to children in

a higher pitch using simple words and sentences o Showing, pointing, sound recognition o First words o Two words sentences, and then telegraphic speech

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

Module 2 Part 4

Emotional Development • Primary Emotions: Present at Birth

o Pleasure o Distress o Joy o Anger o fear

• Secondary Emotions: emerge around 18 to 24 mths, depend upon cognitive development, culture o Embarrassment o Pride o Guilt o contempt

Emotional Development • Crying: Basic cry, Anger cry, Pain cry • Smiling: Reflexive smile and social smile • Stranger anxiety: fear of strangers • Separation anxiety: distress when caregiver

leave • Social referencing: using emotional cues from

others to learn how to act in a situation • Emotional regulation: self-soothing, soothing

from caregiver

Attachment • Attachment figure provides a secure base from

which to explore the world. • Helps to develop sense of self-worth and trust in

others • Main Theorists: John Bowlby and Mary

Ainsworth • Warm, responsive, dependable caregivers

promotes secure attachment • Unpredictable care, neglectful or abusive can

cause insecure attachment.

Attachment Cont’d

• Bowlby: 4 phases of attachment o Phase 1: Attachment to human figures o Phase 2: Focus on one figure o Phase 3: Specific attachments develop o Phase 4: Become aware of others feelings

Attachment cont’d

• Mary Ainsworth: o Strange Situation Experiment

• Requires infants to move through a series of introductions, separations and reunions with caregiver and an adult stranger

o Types of Attachment to Caregiver • Insecure Attachment- avoid reunion with caregiver • Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment- cling to caregiver and

then resist reunion/anxious caregiver will leave again • Secure Attachment – reunite with caregiver

Erikson’s Psycho-Social Stage

• Trust vs. Mistrust o Argues that the goal of this stage is to develop

basic trust. o Stable caregiving promotes trust in infant o Unstable caregiving/environment causes infant to

develop a sense of mistrust in caregiving/environment

Self-Recognition

• Uses the Mirror Test • Usually recognize themselves in the Mirror by

15 months

Infant Caregiving

• Maternal and paternal caregiving • Other caregiving in the home by relatives or a

nanny • Daycare – center-based care

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