Complete Exercise for Chapter 2 and 3 in Pyrczak & Bruce (2017) Writing Empirical Research Reports.

– Chapter 2 PART A and PART C page 16-17

– Chapter 3 PART A page 24

————————– Part 2: in a different document

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Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression, and Anxiety on Child Development

Eslainy Colon

Mercy College

PSYN 616 Statistics & Research Methodology

Prof. Kimberly Rapoza

March 23, 2023

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Abstract

This paper reviews the current literature on the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety

on child development, with a particular focus on developmental outcomes in children based on

maternal history. Studies have consistently shown that maternal mental health during pregnancy

and early childhood can have a negative impact on child development, including language

development, socio-emotional development, and cognitive development. The paper discusses

potential pathways by which maternal mental health influences child development, including

prenatal programming, epigenetic modifications, and stress reactivity, and reviews potential

moderating or exacerbating factors, including socio-economic status, parenting practices, and

genetic factors. The paper proposes a quantitative research project to investigate the relationship

between maternal stress, depression, and anxiety, developmental outcomes in children 0-5 and

examines the implications of these findings for understanding the long-term effects of maternal

mental health on child development. The findings of this study could inform interventions to

support the mental health of mothers and promote positive developmental outcomes for their

children.

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Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression, and Anxiety on Child Development

Maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during pregnancy and early childhood are widely

recognized as significant risk factors for child development. Various factors, including maternal

mental health status, socio-economic status, and environmental factors, can influence children's

developmental outcomes (Nunes Cauduro et al., 2019). In recent years, research has increasingly

focused on the relationship between maternal stress, depression, anxiety, and child development

outcomes. There is growing evidence that maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can have a

negative impact on child development, including language development, socio-emotional

development, and cognitive development (De Oliveira et al., 2019; Nolvi et al., 2022).

Furthermore, maternal stress, depression, and anxiety may persist into adulthood, potentially

impacting a range of outcomes, including mental health, academic achievement, and

employment opportunities (Eberle et al., 2021). In the United States, it is estimated that one in

nine women experience depression during pregnancy (Bauman et al., 2020). Furthermore,

approximately 11-20% of women experience anxiety during pregnancy (Suzuki & Eto, 2020).

Globally, the prevalence of antenatal depression is estimated to be between 10-20% (Insan et al.,

2023). These estimates underscore the importance of understanding how maternal stress,

depression, and anxiety can impact child development despite the growing body of research on

maternal mental health and child development, there are still gaps in our understanding of the

complex relationships between these factors. For example, there is a need for more research on

the specific mechanisms by which maternal stress, depression, and anxiety influence child

development and the factors that may moderate or exacerbate these effects.

The critical paper research project aimed to review the current literature on the impact of

maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development, with a particular focus on

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developmental outcomes in children on maternal history. By synthesizing and analyzing the

existing literature, this paper will aim to identify critical gaps in our understanding of the

relationships between maternal mental health and child development and to develop hypotheses

for future research. The study will focus on specific developmental outcomes in children, such as

language and socio- emotional development, and will aim to identify the unique contributions of

maternal mental health to these outcomes.

This literature review will begin by providing an overview of the theoretical framework

that supports our understanding of the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child

development. It will then discuss the empirical evidence on the relationship between maternal

mental health and child development, with a focus language development. Next, we will review

the potential mechanisms by which maternal mental health influences child development,

including prenatal programming, epigenetic modifications, and stress reactivity. Finally, we will

explore potential moderating or exacerbating factors, including socio-economic status, parenting

practices, and genetic factors.

Literature Review

Maternal Stress, Depression, Anxiety, and Development

The empirical evidence on the relationship between maternal stress, depression, anxiety,

and development is complex and multifaceted. Studies have consistently shown found that

maternal mental health during pregnancy and early childhood can have a negative impact on

child development, including language development, socio-emotional development, and

cognitive development (Lahti-Pulkkinen et al., 2020). For example, Urizar and Muñoz (2021)

found that maternal depression during pregnancy was associated with lower language scores in

children at age 4. Similarly, a study by Henrichs et al. (2019) found that maternal anxiety during

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pregnancy was associated with higher emotional and behavioral problems in children at age 3. A

study by van den Heuvel et al. (2021) investigated the effect of maternal stress on language

development in infants. They found that maternal stress was associated with reduced language

development in infants, suggesting that maternal stress may have a negative impact on language

development. Similarly, a study by Sebők-Welker et al. (2023) found that maternal stress was

associated with increased behavior problems in children aged 3-6 years.

Mechanisms of Influence

The mechanisms by which maternal stress, depression, and anxiety influence child

development are complex and multifaceted. According to Lautarescu et al., (2019), One potential

pathway is through prenatal programming, whereby maternal stress hormones alter the fetal

hormonal environment and influence fetal development. According to Lautarescu et al., (2019),

and colleagues found cortisol levels during pregnancy are associated with altered neural

development in the fetus. Another potential pathway is through epigenetic modifications,

whereby maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can alter gene expression patterns in the

developing fetus (Nowak, et al., 2020), According to the findings of a study by Nowak and

colleagues (2020), maternal depression experienced during pregnancy is connected with

epigenetic alterations in genes that are related to stress reactivity in the child. Finally, maternal

stress, depression, and anxiety can influence child development through their impact on maternal

behavior (Zoubovsky et al., 2020). Maternal behavior can be affected by maternal stress,

depression, and anxiety, leading to changes in parenting practices and interactions with the child.

This, in turn, can influence child development outcomes.

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Moderating or Exacerbating Factors

Several factors may moderate or exacerbate the impact of maternal stress, depression, and

anxiety on child development. For example, socio-economic status has been identified as a

potential moderator, with studies suggesting that the negative impact of maternal mental health

on child development is alarming. Studies have found that the negative impact of maternal

mental health on child development is particularly pronounced for children from lower

socio-economic backgrounds (Guhn et al., 2019). Some studies have also suggested that the

negative impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety may be mediated by maternal

sensitivity and responsiveness to the child's needs. Maternal stress can lead to reduced maternal

sensitivity and increased negative parenting behaviors, which can, in turn, negatively affect the

child's emotional and behavioral development (Ahrnberg et al., 2021). One study found that

maternal stress was indirectly related to child behavioral problems through maternal sensitivity

(Eller et al., 2022). Another study found that maternal anxiety was associated with an increased

risk of insecure attachment in infants, but only when maternal sensitivity was low (Fuertes et al.,

2020). Also, Whittenburg et al. (2022) found that maternal warmth and sensitivity during infancy

can buffer the negative effects of maternal depression on a child's cognitive development. These

findings suggest that maternal sensitivity may be essential in buffering the negative impact of

maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development.

In addition to maternal sensitivity, other factors may also moderate the impact of

maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development. For example, the child's

temperament and genetic predisposition may influence their susceptibility to the effects of

maternal stress. For example, One study found that children with difficult temperaments were

more vulnerable to the negative effects of maternal depression on emotional development than

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children with easy temperaments (Hentges et al., 2021). Another study found that the impact of

maternal depression on child behavior was more substantial for children with a particular

genotype associated with heightened sensitivity to stress (Hartman et al., 2019).

Purpose of Study

The literature suggests that maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can negatively affect

socio-emotional development. However, the impact of maternal mental health on child

development is complex and may be moderated by other factors, such as maternal sensitivity,

child temperament, and genetics. The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the

relationship between maternal stress, depression, and anxiety and developmental outcomes in

children 0-5. The study aims to fill a gap in the literature by examining the long-term effects of

maternal mental health on developmental outcomes in children 0-5.

Hypotheses: Based on the literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed for this study:

1. Higher levels of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during the first five years of

the child's life will be associated with poorer socio-emotional development in

adulthood.

2. Higher levels of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during the first five years of

the child's life will be associated with poorer language development in young

adulthood.

The study will employ a quantitative research design and use regression analysis to test

the hypotheses. The findings of this study will have important implications for understanding the

long-term effects of maternal mental health on child development and for developing

interventions to support the mental health of mothers and promote positive developmental

outcomes for their children.

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Method Participants

The study will include a sample of 200 participants aged 18-25 from a variety of

socio-economic backgrounds. The participants will be recruited from a variety of sources,

including online advertisements, social media, university campuses, and community centers. The

sample will include an equal number of male and female participants, and will be stratified by

socio-economic status, ethnicity, and age. Additionally, the sample will be recruited from both

urban and rural locations. To ensure the accuracy of the data, participants will be asked to

provide documentation of their age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status.

Procedure

The study will take place in a variety of locations, such as universities, community

centers, and online. Participants will be recruited through online advertisements, social media

platforms, and university campuses. Upon recruitment, participants will be asked to provide

documentation of their age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. This information will

be used to ensure that the sample is representative of the general population in terms of age,

gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. Participants will be informed of the objectives,

methods, and procedures of the study. They will then be asked to voluntarily provide informed

consent to participate. All data collected will be kept confidential and used only for the purpose

of the study. Furthermore, participants will be informed of their right to withdraw from the study

at any point without penalty or prejudice. By recruiting a diverse sample, the results of the study

will be reliable and generalizable to the population as a whole.

Participants will be asked to complete an online survey and a series of questionnaires.

The survey will include questions about demographic information, socio-economic status, and

maternal mental health status during pregnancy and early childhood. The questionnaires will

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include the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Parenting

Stress Index. Additionally, participants will be asked to provide information regarding their

child’s developmental outcomes, such as language development, socio-emotional development,

and cognitive development. Further, the survey will also inquire about potential risk factors

influencing the child’s development, such as exposure to parental stress, lack of access to health

care and educational resources, and financial strain. By providing this information, the study will

be able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the mother-child dyad, and the potential risk

factors associated with the child’s development.

Measures

The study will use a range of measures to assess the relationship between maternal stress,

depression, and anxiety and developmental outcomes in young adulthood. The Beck Depression

Inventory-II (BDI-II) will be used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in participants.

The BDI-II is a 21-item self-report questionnaire that is widely used to assess the presence and

severity of depressive symptoms in adults. The questionnaire has demonstrated high levels of

internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Cole et al., 2014). The State-Trait Anxiety

Inventory (STAI) will be used to assess trait and state anxiety in participants. The STAI is a

40-item self-report questionnaire that is used to measure both trait (i.e., general level of anxiety)

and state (i.e., current level of anxiety) anxiety in adults. Additionally, the Parenting Stress Index

(PSI) will be used to assess levels of parenting stress. The PSI is a 120-item self-report

questionnaire that is used to assess parenting stress in adults (Barroso et al., 2016). Finally, a

survey will be used to assess demographic information, socio-economic status, maternal mental

health status, and the child’s developmental outcomes.

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Apparatus and Materials

The study will use a range of apparatus and materials to collect data. Participants will

complete an online survey, questionnaires, and a series of interviews. For the online survey and

questionnaires, the study will use a laptop computer and the internet to administer the survey and

questionnaires. Additionally, the study will use audio- recording devices to record the interviews.

The audio-visual recordings will be used to ensure accuracy and to allow for accurate analysis of

the data. Furthermore, the study will use a coding manual to facilitate the coding of the audio

recordings. The coding manual will include a set of codes that will be used to identify key

themes and patterns in the data. Finally, the study will use a software program to analyze the data

collected from the survey and questionnaires. The software program will be used to generate

descriptive statistics and to identify relationships between the variables.

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