Criminological Theory

Seventh Edition

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For our children and grandchildren

Catherine and Robert

Jordan

Charlie and Mike

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Criminological Theory Context and Consequences

Seventh Edition

J. Robert Lilly Northern Kentucky University

Francis T. Cullen University of Cincinnati

Richard A. Ball Pennsylvania State University, Fayette

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lilly, J. Robert, author. | Cullen, Francis T., author. | Ball, Richard A., 1936- author.

Title: Criminological theory : context and consequences / J. Robert Lilly, Northern Kentucky University, Francis T. Cullen, University of Cincinnati, Richard A. Ball, Pennsylvania State University, Fayette.

Description: Seventh edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018025575 | ISBN 9781506387307 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Criminology. | Crime—United States. | Criminal behavior—United States.

Classification: LCC HV6018 .L55 2019 | DDC 364.973—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018025575

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Brief Contents

1. Preface 2. Acknowledgments 3. • CHAPTER 1 The Context and Consequences of Theory 4. • CHAPTER 2 The Search for the “Criminal Man” 5. • CHAPTER 3 Rejecting Individualism: The Chicago School 6. • CHAPTER 4 Crime in American Society: Anomie and Strain Theories 7. • CHAPTER 5 Society as Insulation: The Origins of Control Theory 8. • CHAPTER 6 The Complexity of Control: Hirschi’s Two Theories and Beyond 9. • CHAPTER 7 The Irony of State Intervention: Labeling Theory

10. • CHAPTER 8 Social Power and the Construction of Crime:Conflict Theory 11. • CHAPTER 9 The Variety of Critical Theory 12. • CHAPTER 10 The Gendering of Criminology: Feminist Theory 13. • CHAPTER 11 Crimes of the Powerful: Theories of White-Collar Crime 14. • CHAPTER 12 Bringing Punishment Back In: Conservative Criminology 15. • CHAPTER 13 Choosing Crime in Everyday Life: Routine Activity and Rational Choice Theories 16. • CHAPTER 14 The Search for the “Criminal Man” Revisited:Biosocial Theories 17. • CHAPTER 15 New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies 18. • CHAPTER 16 The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories 19. References 20. Author Index 21. Subject Index 22. About the Authors

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Detailed Contents

Preface Acknowledgments • CHAPTER 1 The Context and Consequences of Theory

Theory in Social Context Theory and Policy: Ideas Have Consequences Context, Theory, and Policy: Plan of the Book

Inventing Criminology: Mainstream Theories Social Turmoil and the Rise of Critical Theories Criminological Theory in the Conservative Era Criminological Theory in the 21st Century

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 2 The Search for the “Criminal Man” Spiritualism The Classical School: Criminal as Calculator The Positivist School: Criminal as Determined

The Birth of the Positivist School: Lombroso’s Theory of the Criminal Man Lombroso’s Legacy: The Italian Criminological Tradition The Continuing Search for the Individual Roots of Crime

The Consequence of Theory: Policy Implications The Positivist School and the Control of the Biological Criminal The Positivist School and Criminal Justice Reform

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 3 Rejecting Individualism: The Chicago School The Chicago School of Criminology: Theory in Context Shaw and McKay’s Theory of Juvenile Delinquency

Burgess’s Concentric Zone Theory Disorganization and Delinquency Transmission of Criminal Values The Empirical Status of Social Disorganization Theory Summary

Sutherland’s Theory of Differential Association Differential Social Organization Differential Association Theoretical Applications

The Chicago School’s Criminological Legacy

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Control and Culture in the Community Collective Efficacy Theory Cultural Attenuation Theory Cultural Deviance Theory Anderson’s Code of the Street

Akers’s Social Learning Theory Becoming a Learning Theorist Extending Sutherland: Akers’s Theory Assessing Social Learning Theory

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Change the Individual Change the Community

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 4 Crime in American Society: Anomie and Strain Theories Merton’s Strain Theory

America as a Criminogenic Society Strain Theory in Context

Status Discontent and Delinquency Delinquent Boys Delinquency and Opportunity

The Criminological Legacy of “Classic” Strain Theory Agnew’s General Strain Theory

Becoming a Strain Theorist Three Types of Strain Coping With Strain Assessing General Strain Theory Two Theoretical Extensions

A Theory of African American Offending Crime and the American Dream: Institutional-Anomie Theory

Inventing Institutional-Anomie Theory The American Dream and Anomie Institutional Balance of Power Assessing Institutional-Anomie Theory

The Market Economy and Crime The Future of Strain Theory The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications

Expand Opportunities Taming the American Dream

Conclusion

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Further Readings • CHAPTER 5 Society as Insulation: The Origins of Control Theory

Forerunners of Control Theory Durkheim’s Anomie Theory The Influence of the Chicago School

Early Control Theories Reiss’s Theory of Personal and Social Controls Nye’s Family-Focused Theory of Social Controls

Reckless’s Containment Theory The Social Psychology of the Self Pushes and Pulls Factors in Outer Containment Factors in Inner Containment Summary

Sykes and Matza: Neutralization and Drift Theory Techniques of Neutralization Subterranean Values Drift Theory

Control Theory in Context The Context of the 1950s The Context of the 1960s

Further Readings • CHAPTER 6 The Complexity of Control: Hirschi’s Two Theories and Beyond

Hirschi’s First Theory: Social Bonds and Delinquency Hirschi’s Forerunners Hirschi’s Sociological Perspective Why Social Control Matters The Four Social Bonds Assessing Social Bond Theory

Hirschi’s Second Theory: Self-Control and Crime Self-Control and Crime Assessing Self-Control Theory Self-Control and Social Bonds Hirschi’s Revised Social Control Theory Self-Control and Vulnerability to Victimization

The Complexity of Control Hagan’s Power-Control Theory Tittle’s Control Balance Theory Colvin’s Differential Coercion Theory Beyond Control: Cullen’s Social Support Theory

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The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 7 The Irony of State Intervention: Labeling Theory The Social Construction of Crime Labeling as Criminogenic: Creating Career Criminals

Early Statements of Labeling Theory Labeling as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Assessing Labeling Theory Labeling Theory in Context

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Decriminalization Diversion Due Process Deinstitutionalization

Extending Labeling Theory Braithwaite’s Theory of Shaming and Crime Sherman’s Defiance Theory Tyler’s Procedural Justice Theory Rose and Clear’s Coerced Mobility Theory Policy Implications: Restorative Justice and Prisoner Reentry

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 8 Social Power and the Construction of Crime:Conflict Theory Forerunners of Conflict Theory

Marx and Engels: Capitalism and Crime Simmel: Forms of Conflict Bonger: Capitalism and Crime Sutherland and Sellin: Culture Conflict and Crime Vold: Conflict and Crime

Theory in Context: The Turmoil of the 1960s Advancing Conflict Theory: Turk, Chambliss, and Quinney

Turk: The Criminalization Process Chambliss: Crime, Power, and Legal Process Quinney: Social Reality, Capitalism, and Crime

Conflict Theory and the Causes of Crime Consequences of Conflict Theory

Marxist Approach Peacemaking Criminology

Conclusion

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Further Readings • CHAPTER 9 The Variety of Critical Theory

Looking Back at Early British and European Influences Background: The New Criminology Theoretical Arguments Critique of the New Criminology

Early Left Realism The Theory Consequences of New Criminology/Left Realism

The New Criminology Revisited: A Shift in Context Left Realism Today

Taking Stock Late Modernity and Globalization: Major Historical Changes

Changing Social Context: 2015–2018 Early Cultural Criminology

The Beginning Consequences of Early Cultural Criminology

Cultural Criminology Today Green/Cultural Criminology

Background and Emergence of Green Criminology Environmental Justice Ecological Justice Animal Rights

Convict/Cultural Criminology Background: Primarily an American Contribution Consequences of the “New School of Convict Criminology”

New Directions in Criminological Theory: Death and the Birth of New Ideas Background and Transition Hall’s New Perspective: 2012–2018 Ultra-Realism Today The Importance of Other Voices: Jock Young

European Criminology Contributions and Content: Background Policy Update Abolitionism Consequences of Abolitionism

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 10 The Gendering of Criminology: Feminist Theory Background

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Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes Cesare Lombroso W. I. Thomas Sigmund Freud Otto Pollak

The Emergence of New Questions: Bringing Women In The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation to Patriarchy

Women’s Emancipation and Crime Patriarchy and Crime

Varieties of Feminist Thought Early Feminist Perspectives Contemporary Feminist Perspectives

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender Masculinities and Crime

Doing Gender Male Peer Support Theory

Gendering Criminology Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking Gendered Crime Gendered Lives A Gendered Theory of Offending The Gender Gap: Further Comments

Postmodernist Feminism and the Third Wave Revisited Consequences of Feminist Theory: Policy Implications

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives Consequences of Feminist Criminology for Corrections Consequences of Feminist Criminology: Background and New Directions

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 11 Crimes of the Powerful: Theories of White-Collar Crime The Discovery of White-Collar Crime: Edwin H. Sutherland

The Philadelphia Address Becoming the Father of White-Collar Crime Defining White-Collar Crime Explaining White-Collar Crime

Organizational Culture Unethical Cultures Oppositional Cultures The Normalization of Deviance

Organizational Strain and Opportunity

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Strain and Anomie Criminogenic Opportunities

Deciding to Offend Denying the Guilty Mind White-Collar Crime as a Rational Choice White-Collar Offenders as Bad Apples

State-Corporate Crime Consequences of White-Collar Crime Theory: Policy Implications Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 12 Bringing Punishment Back In: Conservative Criminology Context: The United States of the 1980s and Early 1990s

The Economic Decline of the United States The Persistence of Inequality in the United States The Rhetoric of Stability The Legacy of the Conservative Political Agenda

A New Context in Four Parts: 2008 to 2019 The New Conservatism, Shock Doctrine, and Dark Money The War on Terror and the Rise of Hate Crimes The Precariousness of the Rule of Law Big Data and Surveillance

Other Recent Changes in Context The Great Recession Inequality Expands in the United States The Rhetoric of Hope and Change The Rhetoric of “Make America Great Again” Law and Order Issues Under Trump

Varieties of Conservative Theory Crime and Human Nature: Wilson and Herrnstein

The Theory Assessing Crime and Human Nature

Crime and The Bell Curve: Herrnstein and Murray The Criminal Mind Choosing to Be Criminal: Crime Pays Crime and Moral Poverty Broken Windows: The Tolerance of Public Disorganization Consequences of Conservative Theory: Policy Implications

The Embrace of Mass Imprisonment Incapacitating the Wicked “Get Tough” Alternatives

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Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 13 Choosing Crime in Everyday Life: Routine Activity and Rational Choice Theories Routine Activity Theory: Opportunities and Crime

The Chemistry for Crime: Offenders, Targets, and Guardians View of Offenders Policy Implications: Reducing Opportunities for Crime

Rational Choice Theory Rational Choice and Crime Policy Implications Are Offenders’ Choices Rational?

Perceptual Deterrence Theory The Theory Assessing Perceptual Deterrence Theory Policy Implications: Certainty, Not Severity

Situational Action Theory Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 14 The Search for the “Criminal Man” Revisited: Biosocial Theories Evolutionary Psychology: Darwin Revisited

Theoretical Diversity Assessment

Social Concern Theory: Evolutionary Psychology Revisited Neuroscience: Neurological and Biochemical Theories

Neurological Theories Biochemical Theories Assessment

Genetics Behavior Genetics Molecular Genetics Epigenetics Assessment

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 15 New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies Biosocial Risk and Protective Factors

Risk Factors Protective Factors

Environmental Toxins The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications

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An Agenda for Research and Policy Implications for Prevention and Treatment Problems of Definition and the Social Construction of Crime Challenges Ahead

Conclusion Further Readings

• CHAPTER 16 The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories Integrated Theories of Crime

Integrated Theorizing Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm Thornberry’s Interactional Theory Hawkins and Catalano’s Social Development Model Farrington’s ICAP Theory Policy Implications

Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited Patterson’s Social-Interactional Developmental Model

Early-Onset Delinquency Late-Onset Delinquency Intervening With Families

Moffitt’s Life-Course-Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Behavior Assessing Moffitt’s Theory

Sampson and Laub: Social Bond Theory Revisited An Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control Assessing Sampson and Laub’s Life-Course Theory Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime

Rethinking Crime: Cognitive Theories of Desistance Maruna’s Theory of Redemption Scripts Giordano et al.’s Theory of Cognitive Transformation Paternoster and Bushway’s Theory of the Feared Self

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Conclusion Further Readings

References Author Index Subject Index About the Authors

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Preface

The idea for this book was birthed during the mid-1970s when the United States and criminology on both sides of the Atlantic were experiencing immense changes. Between that time and the appearance of the first edition of the book in 1989, much of our individual energies were devoted to establishing and maintaining our careers and to our changing family responsibilities. At times, it seemed as though the circumstances needed to sustain the type of collective effort required for Criminological Theory were so elusive as to prevent the book from ever being written. Yet, the idea of a book that went beyond explaining criminological theory—one that used a sociology of knowledge perspective to explain the origins, developments, and consequences of criminological theory—remained very much alive. We were certain that few works like it in criminology had been written before. Then and now, we were committed to demonstrating that ideas about the causes of crime have consequences.

Criminological Theory, which has been an ongoing project for most of our careers, is now in its seventh edition and is celebrating its 30th anniversary! During this time, the book has more than doubled in size—a fact that reflects both the increasing richness of theorizing about crime and our efforts to add substantive value as we authored each new edition. Thus, the second edition in 1995 included empirical updates, substantial rewriting, and a new chapter devoted to fresh directions in critical thinking about crime. The emphasis on a sociology of knowledge perspective remained the same. The third edition, which appeared in 2002, attempted to capture novel theoretical developments that had occurred within both mainstream and critical theoretical paradigms. The fourth edition, published in 2006, expanded the book from 9 to 14 chapters and identified new theoretical trends in the United States and in Europe. The fifth edition, set forth in 2011, contained a new chapter on white-collar crime—a theoretical domain that is often ignored. Published in 2015, the sixth addition expanded coverage of biosocial theory to two chapters, reflecting the growth of this perspective, and added coverage of emerging frameworks, such as green criminology, male peer support theory, and social concern and social support theories.

Collectively, the three of us have spent more than 140 years as professors studying criminological theory. We were fortunate to have embarked on our scholarly careers when criminology was emerging as a vital discipline on both sides of the Atlantic. During this time, theory has remained central to the criminological enterprise. As our careers progressed, we witnessed foundational theories—such as the Chicago school, Merton’s social structure and anomie paradigm, and control theory—exert enduring influence. But reflecting a changing social context and the growing diversity of the field, we heard new, more critical voices that offered alternative visions of the sources of and cures for crime. Across all editions of the book, our goal has been to chronicle each chapter of this unfolding and fascinating story, giving coverage to all influential perspectives and treating each with an appropriate level of critical analysis and ultimately respect.

Over the past decade or so, criminology has lost a number of prominent scholars—including, among others, William Chambliss, Gilbert Geis, Travis Hirschi, Rolf Loeber, F. Ivan Nye, Raymond Paternoster, Rita Simon, and Austin Turk in the United States and Stanley Cohen, Barbara Hudson, Terence Morris, Geoffrey

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Pearson, and Jock Young in the United Kingdom. Their passing—and that of others before them—has

reminded us of how fortunate we have been in our careers to have experienced the inordinate contributions of remarkable criminologists. In fact, we not only have read their writings but also have known personally many of these wonderful people who shaped thinking within criminology. At the same time, their passing also made clear that criminology as a discipline is a dynamic, ever-changing field—burdened by the losses of great minds but also benefited by the creation of new knowledge that improves our understanding both of the origins of criminal behavior and of what does and does not work to control crime.

In this context, we are privileged to have the continuing opportunity to chronicle the major advances within criminological theory, ranging from biosocial to critical criminology. As with each previous revision, we updated materials and sought to make the book more informative, interesting, and accessible. Here are the most important changes that we have included in the seventh edition:

Discussion of important changes in the contemporary social context in the United States and in Europe, as nations have moved into an era marked by the election of Donald Trump and Brexit. Updated statistics and information about significant changes in crime, imprisonment, and policy. Expanded coverage of important perspectives, including subterranean values and delinquency, low self- control as an explanation of victimization, procedural justice theory, personality traits and white-collar offending, place management theory, the social development model, and the feared self theory of desistance. Expanded coverage of new directions in and the policy consequences of critical and feminist theory. The inclusion of more than 400 new sources that assess developments within, and the empirical status of, the major theories. Examination of the implication of biosocial criminology, especially neuroscience, for offender treatment and juvenile justice policy.

Because criminology is an evolving field of study, we are convinced that the contents of the shifting contexts of the social world from which criminology comes will continue to influence its theoretical explanations for crime and the policy responses to it. It is our hope, however, that criminology never will be a mere reflection of the world around it.

There are far too many people to whom we owe debts for the success of Criminological Theory to be properly thanked here. For this reason, we mention only three. First, the late James A. Inciardi, who gave us the opportunity to write for SAGE Publications, deserves our gratitude for his faith in our efforts and patience when it seemed as though the first edition never would see the light of day. Second, Jerry Westby, our past and long-standing SAGE editor, showed unwavering confidence in our project across multiple editions, always providing just the right dollop of support and wise advice to enable us to bring our work to fruition. Third, Jessica Miller, our current SAGE editor and protégé of Jerry, has displayed remarkable enthusiasm for this project, making possible a wonderful working relationship. We look forward to collaborating with Jessica on the book’s eighth edition and beyond!

Finally, we want to express our appreciation to the many criminologists—and their students—who have

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embraced our efforts to tell the story of the development of criminological theory. Without your continued support, Criminological Theory would not be in its seventh edition. It has been a privilege to share our ideas with you.

J. Robert Lilly

Francis T. Cullen

Richard A. Ball

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Acknowledgments

SAGE Publishing gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following individuals:

Michele P. Bratina West Chester University of Pennsylvania Susan S. Hodge University of North Carolina at Charlotte John A. Humphrey Saint Anselm College Amanda Matravers California State University, East Bay Adam J. McKee University of Arkansas at Monticello Mirlinda Ndrecka University of New Haven Scott A. Pray Muskingum University Elicka Peterson Sparks Appalachian State University

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Chapter One The Context and Consequences of Theory

The Thinker by Auguste Rodin 1840–1917 French artist and sculptor

© iStock.com/davidf

Crime is a complex phenomenon, and it is a demanding, if intriguing, challenge to explain its many sides. Many commentators—some public officials come to mind—often suggest that using good common sense is enough to explain why citizens shoot or rob one another and, in turn, to inform us as to what to do about such lawlessness. Our experience—and, we trust, this book as well—teaches that the search for answers to the crime problem is not so easy. It requires that we reconsider our biases, learn from the insights and mistakes of our predecessors who have risked theorizing about the causes of crime, and consider clearly the implications of what we propose.

But the task—or, as we see it, the adventure—of explaining crime is an important undertaking. To be sure, crime commentary frequently succumbs to the temptation to exaggerate and sensationalize, to suggest that crimes that are exceptionally lurid and injurious compose the bulk of America’s lawlessness, or perhaps to suggest that most citizens spend their lives huddled behind barricaded doors and paralyzed by the fear that local thugs will victimize them. There is, of course, an element of truth to these observations, and that is why they have an intuitive appeal. Yet most Americans, particularly those living in more affluent communities, do not have their lives ripped apart by brutal assaults or tragic murders. And although many citizens lock their doors at night, install burglar alarms, and perhaps buy weapons for protection, they typically say that they feel safe in and close to their homes (Cullen, Clark, & Wozniak, 1985; Scheingold, 1984).

But these cautionary remarks do not detract from the reality that crime is a serious matter that, we believe, deserves study and understanding. Most Americans escape the type of victimization that takes their lives or destroys their peace of mind, but too many others do not share this good fortune. Thus, media reports of Americans killing Americans are sufficiently ubiquitous that many of us have become so desensitized to the violence in our communities that we give these accounts scarcely more attention than the scores from the day’s sporting events. And it is likely that most of us have friends, or friends of friends, who have been seriously assaulted or